Categories of Wrong Beliefs—A Preliminary Proposal

Wrong beliefs, known by some as ‘alternative facts’, have recently spread widely, causing damage in important areas of human life, including social, political, and public health domains. This article is a preliminary proposal consisting of two aspects. First, an analogy to biologic stigmergic effects is drawn. The claim is that social media products are the potent drivers of wrong belief proliferation rather than iterative individual person-to-person communications. Second, the article offers an epistemological category classification of wrong beliefs, with the following mappings: a) ‘No-Information’ marked by willful blindness results in ‘Empty Beliefs’; b) ‘Mis-Information’ yields ‘Mis(taken) Beliefs’; and c) ‘Dis-Information’ predicated on blatant distortions produces ‘Dis(torted) Beliefs’. This simple classification system is not merely epistemologically satisfying; it is functionally useful, providing a foundational definitional distinction between mis-information and dis-information—terms too often used interchangeably. To distinguish them will allow (even promote) basic research to go forth—for example by statistically tracking differential tendencies of malignant/distorted dis-information vs. mistaken/mis-information spread. Moreover, this sort of research could ultimately lead the way to positive policy implications.

Beliefs can be false and thereby believed falsely.However, since beliefs are regulated by their truth conditions-a function of reality tested evidence for or against them-once there is probative evidence that a belief is false, it must be no longer be believed (Brakel, 2009, p. 105).Although the status of beliefs has not changed over the last decade, there has been a sea change: There is now a robust endorsement of believing false beliefs, evidence of their falseness notwithstanding.I shall call the false beliefs that are nonetheless believed 'Wrong beliefs'.
Wrong beliefs, often termed 'alternative facts' by ardent proponents, have proliferated of late, arguably in greater profusion than was the case previously, and likely with more damaging effects.This has been most notably the case with regard to vital issues, including those pertaining to social, political, and public health issues-the last contributing to unnecessary COVID-19 deaths.In this brief communication I will propose an epistemological classification of such wrong beliefs, differentiating among three types: Two are funded by different informational 'knowledge' bases, while the third owes to qualities residing in the information receiver.I shall also make a prior claim that mis-beliefs and dis-beliefs, the two with 'knowledge' bases, give rise to their faulty wrong beliefs via potent stigmergic effects, more so than they do via direct person-to-person influences-these stigmergic effects, analogous to many biological phenomena.
The importance of the proposed classification goes beyond epistemological clarity.It minimally allows for basic research, e.g., establishing significant statistical differences among the various types of wrong beliefs.It could further point the way toward reasoned regulatory restraints on particularly malevolently-intended wrong information masquerading as knowledge.

Stigmergy-Biological
Discussed initially with respect to social insects such as termites and their mound constructions, stigmergy pertains to the work-product of agents influencing the action of other agents.The experiencing agents react to this work-product, the work-product having far greater influence than does (and would) direct agent-to-agent influence.For example, and quite interestingly, if a bee produces a defective hive part, for any of a variety of environmental accidents or biological errors, subsequent serious errors in the final hive result.(See Gallo, Bridges, Woodgate, & Chittka, 2022.) Of further biological importance, the steps necessary in the development of metastatic disease provide another clear example of stigmergic influence.At various stages of tumor growth, some number of cancer cells within the tumor produce specific proteins and other biochemicals-these products, rather than the tumor cells themselves-signal other cells (e.g., inflammatory, immune cells, and cells providing structural support) so as to promote cancer cell transformation toward increased immune-resistance, migration, invasion, and colonization of other locations-in other words metastasis.(See Miller & Torday, 2017;Bergman & Gligorijevic, 2015;Mittal, 2018.) 3. Stigmergy-Social, Media, Social-Media Human beings, I am suggesting, although we are of course directly influenced by other people-experts, celebrities, and leaders from afar, and at close hand by family, friends, and acquaintances-are even more effected in a stigmergic fashion by the media-products of other people.This influence comes from general media exposure, of which almost everyone is subject-although even here the content can vary depending on one's general media source-and one's own particular silo of social media, which can be very disparate indeed.
Taking the case of COVID-19 vaccine refusal-a highly deleterious medical decision made by vastly too many-as a potent illustrative exemplar (See Brakel & Foxall, 2022), let me outline three pathological types of informational 'knowledge' problems, each predicated on the stigmergic product effects of media and especially social-media.
A. First, there are persons who belong to the category 'No-Information'.Despite all sorts of opportunities to avail themselves of well (and even poorly) vetted information, people in this group claim to know nothing about the approved COVID-19 vaccines.
B. Second, there are persons who have been influenced by data that is wrong about the sanctioned COVID-19 vaccines.
For example, information suggesting that the newer m-RNA vaccines are not sufficiently tested, or that the m-RNA vaccines, along with the more standard vaccine types, are not useful in preventing serious disease and hospitalization.
This group can be categorized as those who have been subject to 'Mis-Information'.
C. Finally, the third group has consumed media/social media about the approved COVID-19 vaccines aimed at spreading information that is not just wrong, but inflammatory and dangerous.For instance, people in this group have received 'information' suggesting that the m-RNA vaccines involve implanting a chip in which the vaccinated person can be surveilled; and/or that the vaccine, while promoted as life-saving, can really cause death.This group believes that alternatives, like the animal worming medication ivermectin, are helpful, while in reality these 'alternative treatments', particularly veterinary medications cause serious illnesses in human beings.This third group can be categorized as receivers of 'Dis-Information'.

Epistemological Mapping
The relevance for epistemology can be seen by mapping the above groups onto considerations concerning 'beliefs' in the following way: A. The first group, those with 'No-Information', in this case about COVID-19 vaccines that have proved effective, seem to have adopted willful blindness to the prodigious amounts of media (stigmergic) products on this topic.As such their beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines should be characterized as 'Empty Beliefs'.B.The second group with stigmergic 'Mis-Information' about the COVID-19 vaccines possess 'Mis-Beliefs' -fully spelled out as, 'Mis(taken) Beliefs'.Here the harm is considerable, but not as inflammatory and contagious as will be seen in the next category.Mis-informed persons, in the case of COVID-19 vaccine refusal, might refrain from vaccination, but they would be unlikely to stir others to fear regularly scheduled vaccines, nor to promote dangerous far reaching conspiracy outcomes.C.The third stigmergically influenced group can feel duty-bound to contribute further stigmergic 'Dis-Information'.This is done by producing media and social-medial products targeted toward spreading highly disturbed and disturbing conspiracy-laced falsehoods, aimed not only at reaching other people, but seeking to enlarge the field of these harmful 'alternative facts' to encompass other related matters, such as the advisability of receiving other formerly standard vaccinations, and complying or even considering other public health recommendations.This third group is under the sway of 'Dis-Information' or to state this in a more fully realized fashion 'Dis(torted) Information'.As such, this group epistemologically holds 'Distorted Beliefs' Qeios, CC-BY 4.0 • Article, December 27, 2023 Qeios ID: ETXOIL.3 • https://doi.org/10.32388/ETXOIL.3 3/4