Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality Levels at Various Locations Within Lead City University, Ibadan

Background: Air quality in university environment is strongly affected by the student population explosion, climatic conditions and industrial activity within the institution. Monitoring the main air pollutants such as carbon dioxides, carbon monoxide and particulate matter may help control the most polluted areas of the institution and take measures to reduce the pollution.Universities are big metropolitan institutions with sizable populations of students, employees, and visitors. However, university settings can contribute to air pollution, with diverse activities such as lab work, cooking in dorms, and vehicle traffic, among others, causing interior and ambient air pollution. It is impossible to estimate how much air pollution affects the health and happiness of students without embarking on this type of research work. Purpose/Aim: Evaluation of meteorology parameters (i.e. temperature and relative humidity (RH)) and ambient air quality (CO, CO 2 and particulate matter (PM 2.5 )) level at various locations within Lead City University, Ibadan is essential. Methodology: Ambient concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), Relative humidity (RH), Temperature (TEMP), and Particulate Matter (PM 2.5 ) were measured in 15 locations across Lead City University over a two-week period (between 25 th of June 2023 and 3 rd of August 2023) with Bosean air quality detector -T-201. Results: Morning temperatures in all the locations measured ranging from 23.7°C to 29.2°C while afternoon temperature fluctuates more significantly, with the lowest recorded at 27.2°C and the highest at a notably warmer 35.8°C in all the locations measured. The morning RH levels ranging from 63.8% to 74.7% while afternoon RH values, ranging from 58.2% to 63.4%. The finding also shows that afternoon CO 2 levels range from 468.5 ppm to


Introduction
Air pollution is a significant environmental concern, with adverse effects on human health and the environment.The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that air pollution is responsible for 4.2 million deaths annually, with the majority occurring in low-and middle-income countries (World Health Organization. (2018).In Nigeria, air pollution has been identified as a major public health challenge, with several studies reporting high levels of ambient and indoor air pollutants (Oguntoke, O. et al (2019) and Akinola, M. O. et al. (2020).The situation is particularly concerning in urban areas, where rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to an increase in the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere (Brook, R. D. e tal (2010).
Universities are important institutions in urban areas, with a significant population of students, staff, and visitors.However, university environments can contribute to air pollution, with various activities such as laboratory experiments, cooking in hostels, and vehicular traffic, among others, contributing to indoor and ambient air pollution (Brook, R. D. et al. (2010)).
The impact of air pollution on the health and well-being of university populations cannot be overstated.Several studies have reported adverse health effects associated with exposure to air pollution, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, among others (Akinola, M. O. et al. (2020)).
Air pollutants are substances that have harmful effects on human health and the environment.Some of the most common air pollutants include particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), lead (Pb), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).These pollutants can come from both natural and human-made sources, such as industrial emissions, vehicular traffic, and the burning of fossil fuels (Oguntoke, O. et al. (2019)).
Particulate Matter (PM) is a major component of air pollution and consists of tiny particles suspended in the air.These particles can vary in size and composition, with PM 10 referring to particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers or less and PM 2.5 referring to particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or less.Sources of particulate matter include combustion processes, such as vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, and the burning of fossil fuels for power generation.Exposure to particulate matter has been linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, as well as increased mortality rates (Brook, R. D. et al. (2010)).
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO 2 ) is a toxic gas primarily produced by the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants, and industrial processes.It is a key indicator of air pollution resulting from combustion processes.Exposure to nitrogen dioxide can cause respiratory problems, especially in individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions like asthma (Akinola, M. O. et al. ( 2020)).
Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 ) is another toxic gas released during the burning of fossil fuels, particularly high-sulfur coal and oil.
Industrial processes, such as smelting and refining operations, are also significant sources of sulfur dioxide emissions.
Inhalation of sulfur dioxide can lead to respiratory issues, including bronchoconstriction and aggravation of asthma symptoms (Brook, R. D. et al. (2010)).
Ozone (O 3 ), a gas found in both the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) and near the ground (troposphere), plays a crucial role in the Earth's atmosphere.While stratospheric ozone protects us from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation, ground-level ozone can be harmful to human health.Ground-level ozone forms when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight.Sources of nitrogen oxides and VOCs include vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, and chemical solvents.Exposure to ground-level ozone can lead to respiratory issues, including chest pain, coughing, and throat irritation (Ciencewicki, J., & Jaspers, I. (2017)).
Carbon monoxide (CO 2 ) is a toxic gas that can cause headaches, dizziness, and nausea.It is produced by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, such as in vehicles and generators.Ozone is a reactive gas that can cause respiratory problems and aggravate asthma.It is formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight.
Lead (Pb) is a heavy metal that can cause neurological and developmental problems in children.It comes from sources such as leaded gasoline and industrial emissions.Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic chemicals that can have both short-and long-term health effects, such as eye, nose, and throat irritation, headaches, and damage to the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system.They come from sources such as paints, solvents, and cleaning products (World Health Organization. (2019).
Exposure to these air pollutants can have various health effects, including respiratory and cardiovascular problems, neurological and developmental problems, and an increased risk of cancer.It is crucial to monitor and regulate air pollutants to safeguard human health and protect the environment.This involves the collection of air quality data through monitoring stations and the establishment of air quality standards and guidelines by regulatory agencies.These standards and guidelines help to limit the concentration of pollutants in the air and minimize their adverse effects on human health and the environment.However, air pollution is a significant environmental challenge that affects public health and the environment.Universities, as important institutions in urban areas, have a responsibility to promote a healthy and safe environment for their populations.This study is timely, as it aims to assess the ambient air quality levels at different areas inside Lead City University, Ibadan, with the aim of identifying potential sources of pollution and developing strategies to improve indoor and ambient air quality.Hence, the findings of the study will be useful in promoting a healthier and safer environment for students, staff, and visitors.

Main Objective
The main objective of this study is to assess the ambient air quality levels at different areas within Lead City University, Ibadan.

Specific Objectives
The specific objectives are to: 1. To measure the ambient air qualities of the following parameters, relative humidity (indoor and outdoor), carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, temperature (indoor and outdoor), and particulate matter (PM 2.5 & PM 10 ), at various locations within Lead City University, Ibadan.
2. To investigate the potential sources of air pollutants within the university environment, including transportation, energy use, and natural phenomena.
3. To analyze the data collected from air quality monitoring equipment using statistical methods to determine the levels and sources of air pollutants.
4. To compare the concentrations of air pollutants measured within the university environment against national and international air quality standards and action levels.
5. To provide recommendations for effective air quality management strategies based on the findings of the study.The scope of this study is to assess the ambient air quality levels at different areas within Lead City University, Ibadan.
The study will focus on measuring the concentrations of air pollutants, including temperature, particulate matter (PM), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), and relative humidity at various locations within the university.The study will also investigate the potential sources of these pollutants, such as transportation, energy use, and natural phenomena.
The study will be conducted over a period of time to capture variations in air quality levels due to changes in weather, seasonal factors, and human activities.The study will cover different areas within the university, including academic buildings, residential areas, and open spaces.
The study is limited to Lead City University, Ibadan, and may not be generalizable to other universities or locations in Nigeria.
Hence, the scope of this study is to assess the ambient air quality levels at different areas within Lead City University, Ibadan.The study will investigate the levels and sources of air pollutants and will cover different areas within the university.The study is limited to Lead City University, Ibadan, and may not be generalizable to other locations.

Study Area
Lead City University is a private university located in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.It is situated in the Jericho area of Ibadan, a major city in southwestern Nigeria.The university is easily accessible, being located close to major transportation routes.
Lead City University occupies a sizable campus with well-maintained facilities.The campus encompasses various academic buildings, administrative offices, lecture halls, laboratories, libraries, and student hostels.The university offers a wide range of undergraduate and postgraduate programs across multiple disciplines, including arts, sciences, social sciences, management sciences, and engineering.
The campus is designed to provide a conducive learning environment for students.It incorporates green spaces, walkways, and recreational areas, fostering a pleasant atmosphere.The university also prioritizes the provision of modern amenities and resources to support teaching, research, and student life.
Lead City University, being a self-contained institution, has its own utilities and infrastructure, including electricity, water supply, and waste management systems.The university is committed to maintaining a safe and conducive environment for its students, faculty, and staff.It is within this university setting that the assessment of ambient air quality levels will be conducted, focusing on various areas or zones within the campus to evaluate potential variations in air quality based on the activities and characteristics of those locations.

Identification of Sampling Locations
Areas or zones within Lead City University were selected as sampling locations.These areas were representative of the various activities and potential sources of air pollution within the university, such as the school entrance gate, school exit gate, library, hospital, basketball pitch, workshop, car park, radio station, Senate College of Medicine, Pharmacy/Nursing/EHS/Chew, chapel, dumpsite, male hostel, and female hostel.

Selection of Air Quality Parameters
Specific air quality parameters were selected for assessment.These parameters include indoor and outdoor relative humidity, temperature, particulate matter (PM 2.5 and PM 10 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and carbon monoxide (CO).The selection of these parameters is based on their relevance to air quality assessment and their association with potential sources of pollution within Lead City University.

Sampling Frequency and Duration
Sampling was conducted at different times (morning and afternoon) to capture variations in air quality.The frequency and duration of sampling were determined based on factors such as diurnal variation in air quality and the objectives of the study.Adequate sampling periods were established to obtain representative measurements at each sampling point.

Data Collection
Field measurements were carried out at the selected sampling locations according to the established sampling plan.
Standard procedures for sample collection were followed, ensuring consistency and accuracy.Relevant information, including sampling dates, times, weather conditions, and locations, was recorded for each sample collected.

Quality Control
To ensure the reliability and accuracy of the collected data, quality control measures were implemented.These measures included calibrating sampling equipment, using blank samples as controls, and following appropriate quality assurance/quality control protocols.These steps help maintain the integrity of the collected data and minimize any potential biases or errors.Relative humidity is a measure of the moisture content in the air.Indoor relative humidity reflects the moisture levels within buildings, while outdoor relative humidity indicates the atmospheric moisture levels.

Selected Air Quality Parameters
2.3.2.Temperature (Outdoor) Temperature refers to the degree of hotness or coldness in the air.Indoor temperature represents the thermal conditions within buildings, while outdoor temperature reflects the ambient temperature in the surroundings.
2.3.3.Particulate Matter (PM 2.5 and PM 10 ) Particulate Matter (PM) refers to solid or liquid particles suspended in the air.PM 2.5 represents particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or smaller, while PM 10 represents particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers or smaller.These parameters are crucial for assessing air pollution and its health impacts.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide is a colorless and odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion of fuels.It is primarily emitted from vehicle exhaust and can have adverse effects on human health.

Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 )
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is a colorless and odorless gas that is a natural component of Earth's atmosphere.It is released into the atmosphere through various natural processes, including respiration by animals and plants, volcanic activity, and the decay of organic matter.CO 2 is also a byproduct of human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas.

Equipment used
An air quality detector was used in measuring CO 2 , CO, temperature, relative humidity, and particulate matter.

Sampling Frequency and Duration
In determining the sampling frequency and duration for air sampling at each location, diurnal variations were used to capture the selected parameters for the study.

Diurnal Variations
Diurnal variations refer to the daily patterns of air quality parameters that occur throughout a 24-hour period.To capture these variations adequately, sampling should be conducted multiple times during a day.Consider the following: For parameters affected by diurnal variations, such as temperature and relative humidity, samples were collected at least three times a day: morning, midday, and evening.
For parameters influenced by human activities or emissions, such as CO 2 and CO, sampling included both peak and offpeak periods.This involved conducting sampling during rush hours, business hours, or times when specific activities (e.g., construction, industrial processes) are expected to occur.

Data Recording
The collected data should be recorded systematically to maintain proper documentation and facilitate analysis.The following information should be recorded:

Parameters Measured
Specify the air quality parameters measured, including Relative Humidity (RH), Temperature, PM 2.5 , CO 2 , and CO.

Procedure for Parameter's Measurement
The step-by-step procedure used for collecting measurements of CO 2 (carbon dioxide), CO (carbon monoxide), temperature, relative humidity, and particulate matter using an air quality detector.This procedure ensured accurate and reliable data collection for assessing the air quality in the study area.

Materials Required
Air quality detector (capable of measuring CO 2 , CO, temperature, relative humidity, and particulate matter)

Preparation
a. Ensure that the air quality detector is properly calibrated according to the manufacturer's instructions before starting measurements.
b. Check the detector's power source or batteries to ensure they have sufficient charge.
Setting Up the Detector a. Place the air quality detector on a stable surface in the area where measurements will be taken.
b. Ensure that the detector is positioned at an appropriate height and location to represent the air quality of the surrounding environment.
CO 2 Measurement: a. Power on the air quality detector and select the CO 2 measurement mode.
b. Allow the detector to stabilize and obtain a stable reading.
c. Record the CO 2 concentration displayed on the detector's screen.

Data Sheets
Use standardized data sheets or electronic records to enter the collected data accurately and consistently.
Double-check the entered values for accuracy and completeness.Ensure the data sheets or electronic records are securely stored for future reference and analysis.
N.B: By maintaining comprehensive and well-organized records, it becomes easier to analyze the data, detect patterns or trends, and draw meaningful conclusions about the air quality levels at different areas within Lead City University, Ibadan.

Data Validation
Data validation procedures were implemented to ensure the integrity of the analysis results.Quality control data, calibration data, and instrument performance checks were reviewed to identify any outliers, inconsistencies, or potential errors.Results were validated based on established acceptance criteria and standard procedures.

Data Analysis
The collected air quality data undergo two statistical methods to derive meaningful insights and draw conclusions.The following statistical methods were applied to analyze the air quality data:

Descriptive Statistics:
Calculate measures of central tendency (mean, median) and variability (standard deviation, range) for each air quality parameter.
Generate frequency distributions, histograms, or box plots to visualize the data distribution.

Inferential Statistics:
Conduct hypothesis testing to assess significant differences or relationships between different variables.
Perform t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), or non-parametric tests to determine if there are significant differences in air quality parameters among different sampling locations or time periods.
Examine correlations between air quality parameters using correlation analysis, such as Pearson correlation or Spearman rank correlation.

Ethical Considerations
This study on the assessment of ambient air quality levels at Lead City University, Ibadan, requires careful attention to ethical considerations.Firstly, informed consent was obtained from all participants, including faculty members, staff, and students.Participants were provided with clear information about the study's purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits, allowing them to make an informed decision about their participation.
Institutional approval from the university administration or ethics committee was obtained, complying with any specific guidelines or regulations for conducting research within the university premises.Proper reporting and dissemination of findings was carried out, respecting the privacy and confidentiality and obtaining permission before sharing the results.By addressing these ethical considerations, the study was conducted with integrity, respecting the rights and well-being of

Limitations of the study
The following are the limitations considered for this study on the assessment of ambient air quality levels at Lead City University, Ibadan:

Sample Size and Representatives
The study's findings may be limited by the size and representatives of the sample.Due to resource and time constraints, it may not be feasible to collect air quality data from every area or zone within the university.Therefore, the selected sampling points may not fully represent the entire campus, potentially limiting the generalizability of the results to other areas.

Time Constraints
Conducting a comprehensive assessment of air quality levels at Lead City University may require significant time and resources.However, time constraints limit the duration of data collection or the number of sampling points.This limitation could affect the study's ability to capture variations in air quality over longer time periods or across a wider range of locations.
Hence, future studies can consider addressing these limitations to further enhance the understanding of air quality levels at Lead City University, Ibadan.

Results
Ambient concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), relative humidity (RH), temperature (TEMP), and particulate matter (PM) were recorded from 15 locations across Lead City University, which constitutes major locations in the school, respectively.The results for ambient concentrations of the pollutants are presented in table and graphical format.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Concentration of Temp, CO2, CO, PM and RH for Morning (Variance) . Record the CO concentration displayed on the detector's screen.
Qeios, CC-BY 4.0 • Article, May 21, 2024 Qeios ID: HJBQXD • https://doi.org/10.32388/HJBQXD8/25 CO Measurement a.If your air quality detector can measure CO, select the CO measurement mode.b.Allow the detector to stabilize and obtain a stable CO reading.ca.If your air quality detector can measure particulate matter (PM), select the PM measurement mode.b.Ensure that the detector's inlet is not obstructed and is exposed to the surrounding air.c.Allow the detector to collect particulate matter data for a sufficient duration (consult the detector's manual for recommended measurement time).d.Record the particulate matter concentration displayed on the detector's screen.2.7.3.Post-Measurement Steps a. Power off the air quality detector.b.If necessary, repeat the measurements at different times or locations for a comprehensive assessment of air quality.2.7.4.Data Analysis and Interpretation a. Transfer the recorded data to a computer or analysis software for further analysis.b.Compare the collected measurements with relevant air quality standards or guidelines to assess the environmental

Table 2 .
Concentration of the selected Parameters in the University Gate Entrance

Table 4 .
Ambient concentration of the selected Parameters at the University Library

Table 5 .
Ambient concentration of the selected Parameters at the University Hospital Qeios, CC-BY 4.0 • Article, May 21, 2024

Table 6 .
Ambient concentration of the selected Parameters at the University Basketball Pitch

Table 7 .
Ambient concentration of the selected Parameters at the Workshop Qeios, CC-BY 4.0 • Article, May 21, 2024

Table 8 .
Ambient concentration of the selected Parameters in the Car park

Table 10 .
Ambient concentration of the selected Parameters at the Senate Building

Table 16 .
Ambient concentration of the selected Parameters at the Female Hostel